Odysseus was the only child of King Laertes and Queen Antikleia (Anticleia) of the island of Ithaka (Ithaca) ... a relatively small island 20 miles off the western coast of the Greek mainland. Odysseus became king of Ithaka when his father retired to the countryside to lead the quiet life of a farmer. We cannot be certain as to when Odysseus’ mother died but Odysseus got to see her one last time when he visited the entrance to the Underworld. Odysseus was the grandson of Hermes but he was still a mortal. Odysseus was as brave in battle as he was wise in council ... he was outspoken and sincere, fierce and proud. He was one of the soldiers hidden in the famous, yet scarcely described, Trojan Horse.
The Trojan War was a turning point in the history of Greece and the cultures of the Aegean Sea ... the Age of Heroes was over and the Age of Iron was just beginning. The life of Odysseus also changed dramatically during the Trojan War which occurred circa 1450 BCE. We don’t know exactly how old Odysseus was when he went to Troy but we can assume that he was in his mid-twenties ... that would make him old enough to become a respected king before the war and young enough to survive ten years of brutal fighting and then ten more years of hardship before he was allowed to return to his home and family.
Odysseus’ wife, Penelope, had just given birth to his son, Telemachos (Telemachus), when he left for Troy. The Trojan War lasted ten years and his journey home took another ten years. During his twenty year absence, his son grew to manhood and his wife was besieged by suitors wanting to marry her and claim Odysseus’ home and fortune.
Odysseus was by no means a simple or one-dimensional man ... we are given hints in the fragmented Epic Cycle that he actually feigned madness to avoid having to go to Troy but, once there, he was one of the most committed leaders of the Achaean (Achaian) army. He was willing to fight or negotiate as the circumstances dictated.
We get glimpses of Odysseus in The Iliad and his role in the defeat of Troy but his true nature comes to light in The Odyssey as he tries desperately to make his way home while being tormented by the lord of the Sea, Poseidon.
There were several events during the siege of the city of Troy that give some insight into the character of Odysseus.
Upon arriving at Troy, Odysseus and Menelaos (Menelaus) went into the city to negotiate the return of Menelaos’ wife, Helen, so that an all out siege could be averted. They were taken to King Priam where Odysseus made a sincere plea to Priam and his advisers. Priam was sympathetic to their request but, in the end, took the advice of his councilors and refused to return Helen but, when he was urged to kill Odysseus and Menelaos, he decided that such a cowardly act would outrage the Immortals and inflame the Achaeans (Achaians). One of the counselors of King Priam who advised the king to kill Menelaos and Odysseus was a man named Antimachos (Antimachus). Antimachos did not realize that his hasty advice would come back to haunt him but, in the tenth year of the war, Agamemnon encountered Antimachos’ sons, Peisandros (Peisander) and Hippolochos (Hippolochus), on the battlefield and killed them. The two young men begged Agamemnon for mercy but he recognized the boys and reminded them that their father had shown no mercy for his brother and Odysseus.
When tempers flared in the Achaean council meeting, Odysseus addressed the soldiers and leaders to calm them. As he spoke, the goddess Athene (Athena) invisibly stood beside him and compelled the rowdy men to listen. Odysseus was one of the few men at Troy who could speak frankly with Achilles. Achilles was proud and headstrong but he considered Odysseus a good friend and able fighter. When Agamemnon and Achilles argued and could not come to terms, Agamemnon sent Odysseus as his spokesman to try and reason with Achilles. Although Achilles would not give up his anger towards Agamemnon, he still treated Odysseus with respect.
Another incident involving Odysseus was the encounter with a Trojan spy named Dolon. The Trojans had a victorious day on the battlefield and the Trojan commander Hector was anxious to know if the Greeks were discouraged and preparing to withdraw. He asked for a volunteer to secretly go to the Greek camp as a spy. Hector promised to give the volunteer the chariot and horses of Achilles after the Greeks were defeated. Dolon stepped forward and accepted the job but he made Hector swear a solemn oath that he would fulfill his word and give the chariot and horses of Achilles as a reward.
On the other side of the battlefield, the Greek commander Agamemnon wanted to send two spies into the Trojan camp to assess their intentions and strength. Odysseus and Diomedes were chosen for the task. After the decision had been made, the goddess Athene sent a heron to fly above them to show her approval. While crossing the no-man’s-land between the encamped armies, Odysseus and Diomedes saw Dolon coming their way very quickly. The two men hid until Dolon ran past and then raced to catch him. Their intention was to force him towards the Greek encampment and not let him escape back to the Trojan camp or to the city. Dolon was a fast runner but Athene put determination in Diomedes’ heart and swiftness in his legs. Diomedes shouted at Dolon to stop and then threw his spear just above Dolon’s shoulder. Dolon stopped and fell to his knees. He begged Diomedes to spare his life and said that his wealthy father would pay a large ransom for the return of his only son. Odysseus calmed Dolon with some sly words and made him reveal the situation at the Trojan camp. Dolon told Odysseus that some Thracians troops had just arrived and their commander Rhesos (Rhesus) had golden armor and the finest horses on the battlefield. After Odysseus had finished questioning Dolon, Diomedes drew his sword and as Dolon begged for his life, chopped off his head. Diomedes attacked Dolon with such speed and violence that Dolon’s head was still speaking when it hit the ground.
Odysseus stripped Dolon of his gear and left it by his corpse. The two spies continued on towards the Trojan camp where they easily found the Thracians and devised a plan where Odysseus would steal the magnificent horses of Rhesos and Diomedes would kill as many of the sleeping Thracians as he could. Diomedes killed twelve Thracian soldiers and then pulled their bodies out of the way so that he and Odysseus could lead the horses away without stepping in the blood and gore. Lastly, Diomedes killed the Thracian commander Rhesos and the two heroes fled back to the Greek encampment with the beautiful white horses and the gear they had stripped from Dolon. When they reached their camp, Odysseus held Dolon’s armor aloft and dedicated it to his protector, Athene.
Odysseus (right) and Diomedes (left) confront Dolon.
Odysseus was one of the most fierce warriors at the siege of Troy. His reputation for being a crafty and savvy negotiator was eclipsed by his reputation as a man of action and ferocity. Odysseus was never one to hold back in battle but he was also cautious as to when and where to fight. When Achilles’ companion, Patroklos (Patroclus), was killed, Achilles wanted to charge into the Trojan battle-lines with no thought to rest or food. Even though Achilles was one of the most dangerous men in the world, Odysseus stood up to him and said that the army needed to rest before they engaged the Trojans again. Achilles accepted Odysseus’ counsel and brooded all night so that he could have the right amount of hatred and savagery when he finally went out to fight the Trojans.
After Achilles had his share of killing and revenge for the death of his companion Patroklos, funeral games were held so that the soldiers could expend their grief. When the competition for wrestling is announced, the first to step forward is Telamonian Aias. Only second to Achilles, Aias was the largest and most feared man at Troy. When Odysseus stepped up to wrestle Aias, the assembled soldiers were amazed. To give perspective to the situation we must remember the scene where King Priam and Helen were watching the fighting from the walls of Troy. King Priam mused that he was surprised that Odysseus was such a small man and still at the forefront of the fighting. When Odysseus and Aias squared off to wrestle, everyone expected Odysseus to lose but, as the fighting went on, it became obvious that Odysseus was as good with his bare hands as he was with a spear or sword. To everyone’s surprise, Odysseus struck Aias behind the knee and toppled the monstrous man to the ground, Even so, Odysseus could not lift or pin Aias. Achilles called the competition a tie and ended the fight. Odysseus held his own with the second largest man at Troy.
One of the last major conflicts at Troy occurred when Achilles was killed. The struggle for the body of Achilles and his armor evoked some of the most fierce fighting of the Trojan War. When Patroklos was killed wearing Achilles’ original armor, Achilles’ mother, Thetis, went to Hephaistos (Hephaestus), for new, divine armor. The new armor was so bright that Achilles’ own soldiers could not look directly at it. Achilles was conspicuous on the battlefield because his armor sparkled like a bright star as he slaughtered his way through the Trojan ranks but, despite his god-made armor, he was finally killed by Alexandros (Paris) with the help of the god, Apollon.
Everyone wanted Achilles’ dead body and his armor. The Trojans wanted it to humiliate the Achaeans (Achaians) by desecrating Achilles’ body and the Achaeans wanted it to honor the death of their best man by retrieving his body giving him a proper burial. Telamonian Aias and Odysseus were the two most important men responsible for saving the body of Achilles and his armor from the Trojans. After countless deaths and hours of fighting, Odysseus managed to hold back the Trojans while Aias carried Achilles’ body back to the Achaean camp. A bitter quarrel erupted between Aias and Odysseus as to who deserved Achilles’ armor but it was finally awarded to Odysseus. Aias was so distraught that he killed himself. Odysseus encountered the shade of Aias at the entrance to the Underworld but Aias had still not forgiven Odysseus and refused to acknowledge him.
Before the war could end, Achilles’ son, Neoptolemos (Neoptolemus), was needed to complete the will of the Immortals. Odysseus was sent to the island of Skyros (Scyros) to retrieve Neoptolemos. Odysseus gave Neoptolemos Achilles’ armor and the final assault on the city began.
The Trojan War lasted ten years. The fighting was continuous but the Achaeans could pillage neighboring islands and cities to maintain their supplies while the Trojans used their allies to resupply their troops and food. The war was not simply a dispute between rivals, the Immortals engineered the war and they had certain goals that they wanted to accomplish before the fighting could stop. One goal of the Trojan War was to kill a good number of the demigods ... the Immortals were willing to sacrifice their own semi-divine sons for reasons that are absolutely baffling.
The walls of Troy were impervious to frontal assault and there were no Trojans willing to betray their friends and families and open the gates for the enemy. After ten years of brutal fighting, a clever plan was devised which would compel the Trojans to open their gates and let their conquerors inside the city. A Wooden Horse was designed by Epeios (Epeius) and filled with the best Achaean (Achaian) fighters, Odysseus was one of the men inside the horse. The Wooden Horse was assembled and left within sight of Troy. The Achaean army boarded their ships and retreated, out of sight, to the nearby island of Lemnos and waited for the signal that the Wooden Hoses was inside the city.
Some of the Trojans thought that the Wooden Horse was a symbol of peace and a tribute to the goddess Athene (Athena), others thought that the Wooden Horse was a trick and should be burned where it stood. The Trojan seer, Laokoon (Laocoon), tried to warn King Priam that the Wooden Horse was a trick and not a peace offering but Poseidon (lord of the Sea), who was clearly on the side of the Achaeans, sent one of his giant sea-serpents to kill Laokoon and one (or both) of his sons. Priam assumed that Laokoon was killed because he was giving false prophecy and ordered that the Wooden Horse be brought inside to walls of the city. Moved by some divine spirit, Helen walked around the Wooden Horse three times and, assuming the voice of their wives, she called the names of the best of the Achaean fighters trying to get them to reveal themselves. No man inside the Wooden Horse responded.
The Trojans were ecstatic. They believed that they had survived ten years of fierce fighting and were now ready to accept the Achaeans’ peace offering. After a day and night of celebration, the Trojans collapsed into a state of wine-induced exhaustion. The soldiers inside the Wooden Horse emerged from hiding and fell upon the unsuspecting Trojans. Once the gates of the city were opened, the entire Achaean army entered the city where they killed or enslaved every Trojan citizen. As one final act of brutality, Odysseus killed Astyanax, the infant son of Hector and Andromache. The Trojan War was over.
The lord of the Sea, Poseidon, despised Odysseus because of the blinding of his son, Polyphemos (Polyphemus), but Zeus would not let Poseidon kill Odysseus or prevent his eventual homecoming. Athene was the primary guardian of Odysseus and she took on a benevolent character that she completely lacked during the siege of Troy ... her lust for blood was replaced by a protective benevolence that guided and advised Odysseus and his son, Telemachos.
To give a full account of Odysseus’ adventures on his ten year voyage from Troy to Ithaka would require a complete retelling of The Odyssey so I will only give a few highlights of his trials and tribulations and suggest that you read The Odyssey for the details.
After plundering and razing of Troy, Odysseus sailed for home ... but the gods had other plans. Blown off course to the island of the Cyclops, Odysseus sought hospitality from Polyphemos (Polyphemus), a son of Poseidon.
Polyphemos had only one use for wayward seaman ... he ate them. After loosing several men to the ravenous Cyclops, Odysseus managed to blind Polyphemos with a searing hot wooden spear. Polyphemos was so befuddled by Odysseus’s clever talk and potent wine, that when his neighbors (other Cyclops) came in response to his screams ... Polyphemos was too perplexed to explain what had just happened, and they left in confusion instead of staying to help. Odysseus made his escape from the island but Poseidon was to have his vengeance before sorrowful Odysseus was to see his home on rocky Ithaka. (Odyssey, book 9, lines 105-542)
Odysseus and his men blinding Polyphemos with a searing log.
One of the most important encounters Odysseus had on his journey home from Troy was with the Dread Goddess, Kirke (Circe).
Kirke is the nymph of the island, Aiaia (Aeaea) ... as the daughter of Helios (the Sun) and the Okeanid, Perseis, Kirke was the mistress of drugs and potions.
When Odysseus landed on her island, Kirke turned his sailors into swine with a magic drink but Odysseus was not affected because he was given the antidote to the poison by Hermes. Finally, Zeus commanded Kirke to allow Odysseus to leave and resume his journey home to Ithaka.
Before he left Aiaia, Kirke told Odysseus that he must go to the entrance to the Underworld and consult the dead prophet, Teiresias, in order to find his way home. To reach the entrance to the Underworld, Odysseus must sail past the island of the Sirens and then he would encounter the two monsters, Skylla (Scylla) and Charybdis.
Kirke and Odysseus had three sons: Agrios (Agrius), Latinos (Latinus) and Telegonos (Telegonus).
Odysseus and Kirke
In order to reach the entrance to the Underworld, Odysseus would have to sail past the island of the Sirens but Kirke warned him that anyone who heard the song of the Sirens was doomed to sail heedlessly to their death on the rocky beach and mingle their bones with the unfortunate sailors who had proceeded them.
Kirke told Odysseus to put melted wax in the ears of his crew so that they could sail past the island of the Sirens and not be lured by their irresistible song. She also told him that if he wished to hear the Sirens, he should not put wax in his ears and have his men tie him to the ship’s mast. She said that he should instruct his men that, no matter how he pleaded, they were not to untie him until the ship was well out of earshot of the Sirens. In this way, Odysseus was able to safely sail past the island of the Sirens and become the only mortal who had heard their seductive song and lived. (Odyssey, book 12, lines 37-55)
The Sirens soar above the ship while Odysseus is strapped to the mast.
Skylla (Scylla) and Charybdis live on opposite sides of the Straits of Messenia between Italy and Sicily. Skylla is a six-headed, snake-like monster that will swoop down and snatch sailors from the decks of passing ships. Charybdis is in the form of a whirlpool which alternately sucks down and spews out the waters of the straits to destroy passing ships.
When Odysseus and his brave crew came to the precincts of Skylla and Charybdis, they gave Charybdis a wide berth and sailed near Skylla’s rocky abode. Odysseus put on his finest armor and stood with two spears scanning the rock-face for any sign of the dreaded beast. Despite his vigilance, Odysseus was still taken by surprise. While Charybdis kept their attention with her gushing and sputtering, Skylla swooped down unseen and snatched up six of the crewmen. Their legs and torsos were dangling from Skylla’s mouths as she lifted them to her cave to eat them. They screamed for Odysseus and begged for help but he stood helpless on the deck with the rest of the terrified crew. Odysseus said it was the most pitiful scene his long suffering eyes had ever seen. (Odyssey, book 12, lines 75+ and 245+)
Skylla
Following Kirke’s instructions, Odysseus and his crew reached the entrance to the Underworld ... the domain of Hades and Persephone. After an elaborate sacrifice, the ‘shades’ of the dead approached Odysseus and he questioned them. He sought the shade of the dead prophet, Teiresias, but other shades came to the sacrificial blood ... including Odysseus’ mother, Antikleia. (Odyssey, book 11, line 85)
Odysseus also met Herakles (Heracles), i.e. the ‘shade’ of Herakles, in the Underworld ... the ‘real’ Herakles was, of course, with the other Immortals on Mount Olympos (Olympus). Herakles and Odysseus share the distinction of going to the house of Hades alive and then returning to the land of the living. (Odyssey, book 11, line 601)
One recurring theme in The Iliad and The Odyssey is the armor of Achilles ... divine armor that was forged by Hephaistos (Hephaestus) and stained with the blood of countless heroes. Odysseus met Telamonian Aias in the Underworld but Aias would not speak because he and Odysseus had fought bitterly over the armor of Achilles and even in death, Aias would not forgive Odysseus. (Odyssey, book 11, line 555)
The true purpose of Odysseus going to the Underworld was to consult the dead oracle, Teiresias the Theban. Kirke had told Odysseus that speaking with Teiresias was the only way he could find out how to appease Poseidon and return to his home and family. The oracle told Odysseus that he would, indeed, see his home and, best of all, there would be an end to Poseidon’s bitterness.
Kalypso (She Who Conceals) is a nymph who lives on the island of Ogygia. By the time Odysseus reached Ogygia he had lost his ships and all of his companions had been killed ... he was alone and without hope. When Odysseus was washed ashore on Ogygia, Kalypso nourished and comforted him but would not permit him to leave her island.
Again, Athene came to Odysseus’ rescue by begging Zeus to intercede and force Kalypso to release Odysseus. Zeus sent Hermes to Ogygia to command Kalypso to set Odysseus free. Kalypso reluctantly agreed and gave Odysseus tools so that he could construct a raft and resume his journey to Ithaka. Odysseus and Kalypso had three sons named Nausithoos (Nausithous), Nausinoos (Nausinous) and Telegonos (Telegonus).
After leaving Ogygia, Odysseus found refuge on the island of the Phaiakians (Phaeacians). When he revealed his true identity, the Phaiakians transported Odysseus back to his home on Ithaka. He found his house inhabited by suitors who were squandering his possessions and seeking to marry his wife, Penelope. Athene assisted Odysseus by disguising him as an old man so that he could secretly enter his home and devise a way of ejecting the suitors and reclaiming his home. A bloody fight ensued in which Odysseus, Telemachos and a few loyal servants killed the suitors. After twenty years of fighting and wandering, Odysseus finally regained his family and kingship.
The line numbers listed here correspond fairly well with the Lattimore and Murray/Wyatt translations of The Iliad. Other translations (Fitzgerald, Fagles et al) do not correspond as well but, with a small amount of effort, you should be able to find the reference you need regardless of the translation you use. Lattimore (ISBN 0226469409); A.T. Murray/William F. Wyatt Vol. I & II (ISBN 0674995791 and 0674995805); Robert Fitzgerald (ISBN 0374529051); Robert Fagles (ISBN 0140275363)
 |
 |
 |